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Chapter:
Cell & Genetics
Study
of Cell
A
cell is the smallest unit that can perform all activities of life. It is the
building block of every living organism.
āĻোāώ āĻšāϞো āĻীāĻŦāύেāϰ āϏāĻŦāĻেāϝ়ে āĻোāĻ āĻāĻāĻ āϝা āϏāĻŦ āϧāϰāύেāϰ āĻ্āϰিāϝ়া āϏāĻŽ্āĻĒাāĻĻāύ āĻāϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰে।
āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻি āĻীāĻŦেāϰ āĻāĻ āύ āĻোāώ āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āϤৈāϰি।
The
term “cell” was first used by Robert Hooke in 1665 after observing thin
slices of cork.
ā§§ā§Ŧā§Ŧā§Ģ āϏাāϞে āϰāĻŦাāϰ্āĻ āĻšুāĻ āĻĒ্āϰāĻĨāĻŽ āĻāϰ্āĻেāϰ āĻĒাāϤāϞা āϏ্āϞাāĻāϏ āĻĻেāĻে “āĻোāώ” āĻļāĻŦ্āĻĻāĻি āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰ
āĻāϰেāύ।
The
smallest living cell is Mycoplasma gallisepticum.
āϏāĻŦāĻেāϝ়ে āĻোāĻ āĻীāĻŦāύ্āϤ āĻোāώ āĻšāϞো Mycoplasma
gallisepticum।
The
longest cell found in animals is the nerve cell or neuron.
āĻĒ্āϰাāĻŖীāϰ āϏāĻŦāĻেāϝ়ে āϞāĻŽ্āĻŦা āĻোāώ āĻšāϞো āϏ্āύাāϝ়ুāĻোāώ āĻŦা āύিāĻāϰāύ।
The
largest single cell in nature is the egg of an ostrich.
āĻĒ্āϰāĻৃāϤিāϰ āϏāĻŦāĻেāϝ়ে āĻŦāĻĄ় āĻāĻāĻ āĻোāώ āĻšāϞো āĻāĻāĻĒাāĻিāϰ āĻĄিāĻŽ।
Schleiden
and Schwann proposed the Cell Theory in 1838–39.
ā§§ā§Žā§Šā§Ž–ā§Šā§¯ āϏাāϞে āĻļ্āϞেāĻāĻĄেāύ āĻ āĻļāĻাāύ āĻোāώāϤāϤ্āϤ্āĻŦ āĻĒ্āϰāϏ্āϤাāĻŦ āĻāϰেāύ।
Main
points of Cell Theory
All
living beings are made of cells.
āϏāĻŦ āĻীāĻŦ āĻোāώ āĻĻিāϝ়ে āϤৈāϰি।
Every
organism’s body is built from one or more cells.
āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻি āĻীāĻŦেāϰ āĻĻেāĻš āĻāĻ āĻŦা āĻāĻাāϧিāĻ āĻোāώ āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āĻāĻ িāϤ।
New
cells arise only from pre-existing cells.
āύāϤুāύ āĻোāώ āĻĒূāϰ্āĻŦāĻŦāϰ্āϤী āĻোāώ āĻĨেāĻেāĻ āϏৃāώ্āĻি āĻšāϝ়।
Life
begins from a single cell called the zygote.
āĻীāĻŦāύেāϰ āĻļুāϰু āĻāĻāĻি āĻŽাāϤ্āϰ āĻোāώ āĻĨেāĻে, āϝাāĻে āĻাāĻāĻোāĻ āĻŦāϞা āĻšāϝ়।
Types
of Cells
Cells
exist in two major forms: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
āĻোāώ āĻĒ্āϰāϧাāύāϤ āĻĻুāĻি āϧāϰāύেāϰ āĻšāϝ়: āĻĒ্āϰোāĻ্āϝাāϰিāĻāĻিāĻ āĻ āĻāĻāĻ্āϝাāϰিāĻāĻিāĻ।
Prokaryotic
Cells
These
are primitive and simple cells. They have nuclear material but no nuclear
membrane.
āĻāĻ āĻোāώāĻুāϞি āĻāĻĻিāĻŽ āĻ āϏāϰāϞ। āĻāĻĻেāϰ āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏ āĻĨাāĻে āύা, āĻļুāϧু āĻ
āύাāĻŦৃāϤ āĻিāύāĻāϤ āĻĒāĻĻাāϰ্āĻĨ āĻĨাāĻে।
Membrane-bound
organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies are absent.
āĻŽাāĻāĻোāĻāύ্āĻĄ্āϰিāϝ়া, āĻāϞāĻি āĻŦāĻĄিāϰ āĻŽāϤো
āĻিāϞ্āϞিāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻ
āĻ্āĻাāĻŖু āĻĨাāĻে āύা।
Examples:
viruses, bacteria, cyanobacteria.
āĻāĻĻাāĻšāϰāĻŖ: āĻাāĻāϰাāϏ, āĻŦ্āϝাāĻāĻেāϰিāϝ়া, āϏাāϝ়াāύোāĻŦ্āϝাāĻāĻেāϰিāϝ়া।
Eukaryotic
Cells
These
cells have a well-defined nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles.
āĻāĻĻেāϰ āϏুāϏ্āĻĒāώ্āĻ āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏ āĻĨাāĻে āĻāĻŦং āĻŦিāĻিāύ্āύ āĻিāϞ্āϞিāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻ
āĻ্āĻাāĻŖু āĻāĻĒāϏ্āĻĨিāϤ
āĻĨাāĻে।
Found
in all plants and animals.
āϏāĻŦ āĻāĻĻ্āĻিāĻĻ āĻ āĻĒ্āϰাāĻŖীāϤে āĻ āϧāϰāύেāϰ āĻোāώ āĻĨাāĻে।
Difference
between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
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Prokaryotes (English)
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āĻĒ্āϰোāĻ্āϝাāϰিāĻāĻāϏ (Bengali)
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Cell size is small.
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āĻোāώেāϰ
āĻāĻাāϰ āĻোāĻ।
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Nucleus absent.
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āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏ
āĻ
āύুāĻĒāϏ্āĻĨিāϤ।
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One circular chromosome.
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āĻāĻāĻি
āĻŦৃāϤ্āϤাāĻাāϰ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ āĻĨাāĻে।
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Membrane-bound organelles
absent.
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āĻিāϞ্āϞিāϝুāĻ্āϤ
āĻ
āĻ্āĻাāĻŖু āύেāĻ।
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Cell division by fission or
budding.
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āĻŦিāĻাāĻāύ
āĻŦাāĻāύাāϰি āĻĢিāĻļāύ āĻŦা āĻāϞিāĻাāĻāĻ āύ āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা।
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Eukaryotes (English)
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āĻāĻāĻ্āϝাāϰিāĻāĻāϏ (Bengali)
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Cell size is large.
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āĻোāώেāϰ
āĻāĻাāϰ āĻŦāĻĄ়।
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Nucleus present.
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āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏ
āĻāĻĒāϏ্āĻĨিāϤ।
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Many linear chromosomes.
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āĻ
āύেāĻāĻুāϞো
āϏāϰāϞāϰেāĻা āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ āĻĨাāĻে।
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Organelles present.
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āĻ
āĻ্āĻাāĻŖুāĻুāϞি
āĻāĻĒāϏ্āĻĨিāϤ।
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Division by mitosis or
meiosis.
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āĻŦিāĻাāĻāύ
āĻŽাāĻāĻোāϏিāϏ āĻŦা āĻŽাāĻāĻāϏিāϏে।
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Structure
of a Typical Cell
Every
cell has several essential parts that help it function.
āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻি āĻোāώে āĻিāĻু āĻুāϰুāϤ্āĻŦāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āĻ
ংāĻļ āĻĨাāĻে āϝা āĻোāώেāϰ āĻাāĻāĻāϰ্āĻŽ āĻĒāϰিāĻাāϞāύা āĻāϰে।
Cell
Wall (only in plants)
It is
a strong, non-living outer layer made of cellulose. It gives shape and
protection.
āĻāĻি āϏেāϞুāϞোāĻ āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āϤৈāϰি āĻĻৃāĻĸ়,
āĻ
āĻৈāĻŦ āĻĒ্āϰাāĻীāϰ; āĻāĻি āĻোāώāĻে āĻāĻৃāϤি āĻ
āϏুāϰāĻ্āώা āĻĻেāϝ়।
Cell
Membrane
A
thin, flexible, living membrane made of phospholipids. It controls movement
of substances in and out.
āĻāĻāĻি āĻĒাāϤāϞা, āύāĻŽāύীāϝ়, āĻীāĻŦāύ্āϤ āĻিāϞ্āϞি āϝা āĻĢāϏāĻĢোāϞিāĻĒিāĻĄ āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āĻāĻ িāϤ। āĻāĻি
āĻোāώে āĻĒāĻĻাāϰ্āĻĨেāϰ āĻāĻāĻŽāύ āĻ āĻŦāĻšিāϰ্āĻāĻŽāύ āύিāϝ়āύ্āϤ্āϰāĻŖ āĻāϰে।
Protoplasm
The
living fluid inside the cell, described by Purkinje in 1839.
āĻোāώেāϰ āĻেāϤāϰেāϰ āĻীāĻŦāύ্āϤ āϤāϰāϞ,
ā§§ā§Žā§Šā§¯ āϏাāϞে āĻĒুāϰāĻিāύিāϝ়ে āĻŦāϰ্āĻŖāύা āĻāϰেāύ।
It is
divided into cytoplasm (outside nucleus) and nucleoplasm (inside nucleus).
āĻāĻি āϏাāĻāĻোāĻĒ্āϞাāĻāĻŽ (āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏেāϰ āĻŦাāĻāϰে) āĻ āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāĻāĻĒ্āϞাāĻāĻŽে (āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏেāϰ
āĻিāϤāϰে) āĻŦিāĻāĻ্āϤ।
Mitochondria
Discovered
by Altman (1866). They are double-membrane organelles with cristae and
matrix.
āĻ
্āϝাāϞ্āĻāĻŽ্āϝাāύ āĻāĻŦিāώ্āĻাāϰ āĻāϰেāύ (ā§§ā§Žā§Ŧā§Ŧ)। āĻāĻি āĻĻ্āĻŦিāϏ্āϤāϰ āĻিāϞ্āϞিāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻ
āĻ্āĻাāĻŖু; āĻেāϤāϰে āĻ্āϰিāϏ্āĻি āĻ āĻŽ্āϝাāĻ্āϰিāĻ্āϏ āĻĨাāĻে।
They
produce ATP, so called the “powerhouse of the cell.”
āĻāĻি ATP āϤৈāϰি āĻāϰে, āϤাāĻ āĻāĻিāĻে “āĻোāώেāϰ āĻŦিāĻĻ্āϝুā§āĻেāύ্āĻĻ্āϰ” āĻŦāϞা āĻšāϝ়।
Golgi
Bodies
Discovered
by Camillo Golgi. They modify, pack, and store substances.
āĻাāĻŽিāϞো āĻāϞāĻি āĻāĻŦিāώ্āĻাāϰ āĻāϰেāύ। āĻāĻি āĻোāώে āĻĒāĻĻাāϰ্āĻĨ āĻĒ্āϰāĻ্āϰিāϝ়াāĻাāϤ, āϏংāϰāĻ্āώāĻŖ āĻ āĻĒ্āϝাāĻেāĻ āĻāϰে।
In
plants they are called dictyosomes.
āĻāĻĻ্āĻিāĻĻে āĻāĻĻেāϰ āĻĄিāĻāĻিāĻāϏোāĻŽ āĻŦāϞা āĻšāϝ়।
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Network
of membranes connecting the nucleus and cell membrane.
āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏ āĻ āĻোāώāĻিāϞ্āϞিāĻে āϏংāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻāϰা āĻিāϞ্āϞিāϰ āĻাāϞিāĻা।
Helps
in transport and provides support.
āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāĻšāĻŖে āϏাāĻšাāϝ্āϝ āĻāϰে āĻ āĻাāĻ াāĻŽোāĻāϤ āϏāĻšাāϝ়āϤা āĻĻেāϝ়।
Ribosomes
Protein-synthesizing
structures made of RNA.
RNA āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āϤৈāϰি āĻĒ্āϰোāĻিāύ āϏংāĻļ্āϞেāώāĻাāϰী āĻāĻŖা।
Found
free or attached to ER.
āĻŽুāĻ্āϤ āĻŦা ER-āĻāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āϝুāĻ্āϤ
āĻ
āĻŦāϏ্āĻĨাāϝ় āĻĨাāĻে।
Lysosomes
Single-membrane
sacs containing digestive enzymes.
āĻāĻāĻি āĻিāϞ্āϞিāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻĨāϞে āϝাāϤে āĻĒাāĻāĻ āĻāύāĻাāĻāĻŽ āĻĨাāĻে।
They
destroy worn-out parts; known as “suicidal bags.”
āĻāĻুāϞি āύāώ্āĻ āĻ
ংāĻļ āĻেāĻে āĻĢেāϞে;
āϤাāĻ “āĻāϤ্āĻŽāĻšāϤ্āϝা āĻĨāϞি” āύাāĻŽে āĻĒāϰিāĻিāϤ।
Centrosome
(animals only)
Contains
centrioles which help in spindle formation during cell division.
āĻāϤে āϏেāύ্āĻ্āϰিāĻāϞ āĻĨাāĻে āϝা āĻোāώāĻŦিāĻাāĻāύে āϏ্āĻĒিāύ্āĻĄāϞ āϤৈāϰি āĻāϰে।
Plastids
(plants only)
Three
types: chloroplast, chromoplast, leucoplast.
āϤিāύ āĻĒ্āϰāĻাāϰ: āĻ্āϞোāϰোāĻĒ্āϞাāϏ্āĻ,
āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻĒ্āϞাāϏ্āĻ, āϞিāĻāĻোāĻĒ্āϞাāϏ্āĻ।
Chloroplast
Contains
chlorophyll, performs photosynthesis.
āĻāϤে āĻ্āϞোāϰোāĻĢিāϞ āĻĨাāĻে, āĻāĻি āĻāϞোāĻāϏংāϏ্āϞেāĻļāύ
āĻāϰে।
Vacuoles
Fluid-filled
spaces; large in plants, small in animals.
āϤāϰāϞāĻĒূāϰ্āĻŖ āϏ্āĻĨাāύ; āĻāĻĻ্āĻিāĻĻে āĻŦāĻĄ়, āĻĒ্āϰাāĻŖীāϤে āĻোāĻ।
Nucleus
Largest
structure controlling all cell activities.
āϏāĻŦ āĻাāĻ āύিāϝ়āύ্āϤ্āϰāĻŖāĻাāϰী āϏāĻŦāĻেāϝ়ে āĻŦāĻĄ় āĻāĻ āύ।
Contains
nuclear membrane, nucleolus, and chromatin (DNA + protein).
āĻāϤে āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϰ āĻিāϞ্āϞি,
āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāĻāϞাāϏ āĻ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽাāĻিāύ āĻĨাāĻে (DNA + āĻĒ্āϰোāĻিāύ)।
Difference
between Plant and Animal Cells
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Plant Cell (English)
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āĻāĻĻ্āĻিāĻĻ āĻোāώ (Bengali)
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Generally larger.
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āϏাāϧাāϰāĻŖāϤ
āĻŦāĻĄ়।
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Cell wall present.
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āĻোāώāĻĒ্āϰাāĻীāϰ
āĻāĻে।
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Plastids present.
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āĻĒ্āϞাāϏ্āĻিāĻĄ
āĻāĻে।
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Centrosome absent.
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āϏেāύ্āĻ্āϰোāϏোāĻŽ
āύেāĻ।
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Large vacuoles.
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āĻŦāĻĄ়
āĻ্āϝাāĻুāϝ়োāϞ āĻĨাāĻে।
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Animal Cell (English)
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āĻĒ্āϰাāĻŖী āĻোāώ (Bengali)
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Smaller in size.
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āĻāĻাāϰে
āĻোāĻ।
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No cell wall.
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āĻোāώāĻĒ্āϰাāĻীāϰ
āύেāĻ।
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No plastids.
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āĻĒ্āϞাāϏ্āĻিāĻĄ
āύেāĻ।
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Centrosome present.
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āϏেāύ্āĻ্āϰোāϏোāĻŽ
āĻĨাāĻে।
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Small vacuoles.
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āĻোāĻ
āĻ্āϝাāĻুāϝ়োāϞ।
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Chromosomes
Chromosomes
are thin, thread-like bodies found inside the nucleus that carry hereditary
information.
āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ āĻšāϞ āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏেāϰ āĻিāϤāϰে āĻĨাāĻা āϏূāĻ্āώ্āĻŽ āϏুāϤো-āϏāĻĻৃāĻļ āĻāĻ āύ, āϝা āĻŦংāĻļāĻāϤ āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āĻŦāĻšāύ āĻāϰে।
They
become clearly visible only during cell division.
āĻāĻুāϞি āϏ্āĻĒāώ্āĻāĻাāĻŦে āĻĻেāĻা āϝাāϝ় āĻļুāϧু āĻোāώ āĻŦিāĻাāĻāύেāϰ āϏāĻŽāϝ়।
Each
chromosome is made of two identical chromatids joined at a point called the
centromere.
āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻি āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ āĻĻুāĻি āĻāĻāĻ āϰāĻāĻŽ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽাāĻিāĻĄ āĻĻ্āĻŦাāϰা āĻāĻ িāϤ, āϝাāĻĻেāϰ āĻāĻāĻি āĻেāύ্āĻĻ্āϰীāϝ় āĻ
ংāĻļ āϏেāύ্āĻ্āϰোāĻŽিāϝ়াāϰে
āϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻĨাāĻে।
Chromosomes
contain genes, and each gene is a specific segment of DNA.
āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽে āĻিāύ āĻĨাāĻে, āĻāĻŦং āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāĻি āĻিāύ āĻšāϞ
āĻĄিāĻāύāĻāϰ āĻāĻāĻি āύিāϰ্āĻĻিāώ্āĻ āĻ
ংāĻļ।
Chromosome
Numbers (Examples)
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Organism
|
Chromosomes
|
|
Human
|
46
|
|
Dog
|
78
|
|
Pea
|
14
|
|
Horse
|
64
|
āĻŽাāύুāώেāϰ ā§Ēā§Ŧ,
āĻুāĻুāϰেāϰ ā§ā§Ž, āĻŽāĻāϰেāϰ ā§§ā§Ē āĻāĻŦং
āĻোāĻĄ়াāϰ ā§Ŧā§ĒāĻি āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ āĻĨাāĻে।
Nucleic
Acids
Nucleic
acids store and transfer genetic information in living organisms.
āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāĻ āĻ
্āϝাāϏিāĻĄ āĻীāĻŦāĻĻেāĻšে āĻŦংāĻļāĻāϤ āϤāĻĨ্āϝ āϏংāϰāĻ্āώāĻŖ āĻ āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāĻšāύ āĻāϰে।
DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
DNA
was first discovered by Miescher.
āĻĄিāĻāύāĻ āĻĒ্āϰāĻĨāĻŽ āĻāĻŦিāώ্āĻাāϰ āĻāϰেāύ āĻŽিāĻļাāϰ।
It is
built from nucleotides made of sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen bases.
āĻāĻি āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāĻāĻাāĻāĻĄ āĻĻিāϝ়ে āϤৈāϰি,
āϝাāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āĻļāϰ্āĻāϰা, āĻĢāϏāĻĢেāĻ āĻ āύাāĻāĻ্āϰোāĻেāύ
āĻŦেāϏ āĻĨাāĻে।
The
major bases in DNA are A, T, G, and C.
āĻĄিāĻāύāĻ-āϤে āĻĒ্āϰāϧাāύ āĻŦেāϏ āĻšāϞ A,
T, G āĻāĻŦং C।
Watson
and Crick Model
DNA
has a double-helix shape that looks like a twisted ladder.
āĻĄিāĻāύāĻāϰ āĻāĻ āύ āĻĻ্āĻŦি-āĻšেāϞিāĻ্āϏ āϝা āĻĒাāĻাāύো āϏিঁāĻĄ়িāϰ āĻŽāϤো।
A
pairs with T, and G pairs with C.
A āĻŦেāϏ T-āĻāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āĻāĻŦং G āĻŦেāϏ C-āĻāϰ āϏাāĻĨে āϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻšāϝ়।
DNA
carries all hereditary instructions.
āĻĄিāĻāύāĻ āĻŦংāĻļāĻāϤ āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝেāϰ āϏāĻŽāϏ্āϤ āύিāϰ্āĻĻেāĻļ āĻŦāĻšāύ āĻāϰে।
Functions
of DNA
• It transfers genetic traits from one
generation to the next.
• āĻāĻি āĻāĻ āĻĒ্āϰāĻāύ্āĻŽ āĻĨেāĻে āĻ
āύ্āϝ āĻĒ্āϰāĻāύ্āĻŽে āĻŦংāĻļāĻāϤ
āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āĻŦāĻšāύ āĻāϰে।
• DNA guides the formation of RNA inside cells.
• āĻāĻি āĻোāώে RNA āϤৈāϰিāϤে āϏাāĻšাāϝ্āϝ āĻāϰে।
RNA
(Ribonucleic Acid)
RNA
is usually single-stranded.
āĻāϰāĻāύāĻ āϏাāϧাāϰāĻŖāϤ āĻāĻāĻ āϏুāϤো-āĻাāϤীāϝ়।
Its
bases are A, U, G, and C.
āĻāϤে A, U, G āĻāĻŦং C āĻŦেāϏ āĻĨাāĻে।
RNA
exists in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
āĻāϰāĻāύāĻ āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏ āĻ āϏাāĻāĻোāĻĒ্āϞাāĻāĻŽ— āĻĻুāĻ āĻাāϝ়āĻাāϤেāĻ āĻĒাāĻāϝ়া āϝাāϝ়।
Types
of RNA
1.
mRNA
– carries coded messages from DNA.
mRNA DNA-āϰ āĻŦাāϰ্āϤা āϰাāĻāĻŦোāĻোāĻŽে āύিāϝ়ে āϝাāϝ়।
2.
rRNA
– forms the structure of ribosomes.
rRNA āϰাāĻāĻŦোāĻোāĻŽেāϰ āĻŽূāϞ āĻ
ংāĻļ āĻāĻ āύ āĻāϰে।
3.
tRNA
– brings amino acids to build proteins.
tRNA āĻ
্āϝাāĻŽিāύো āĻ
্āϝাāϏিāĻĄ āĻāύে āĻĒ্āϰোāĻিāύ āϤৈāϰি āĻāϰāϤে āϏাāĻšাāϝ্āϝ āĻāϰে।
Cell
Division
The
cell cycle is the repeated series of steps that creates new cells.
āĻোāώāĻāĻ্āϰ āĻšāϞ āϧাāϰাāĻŦাāĻšিāĻ āĻĒ্āϰāĻ্āϰিāϝ়া āϝাāϰ āĻŽাāϧ্āϝāĻŽে āύāϤুāύ āĻোāώ āϏৃāώ্āĻি āĻšāϝ়।
Types
of Cell Division
1.
Mitosis
Occurs
in body cells and produces two identical daughter cells.
āĻāĻি āĻĻেāĻšāĻোāώে āĻāĻে āĻāĻŦং āĻĻুāĻি āĻ
āĻিāύ্āύ āĻোāώ āϤৈāϰি āĻāϰে।
Mitosis
helps in growth, tissue repair, and general development.
āĻŽাāĻāĻোāϏিāϏ āĻŦৃāĻĻ্āϧি, āĻিāϏ্āϝু āĻŽেāϰাāĻŽāϤ āĻ
āĻĻেāĻšেāϰ āĻŦিāĻাāĻļে āϏাāĻšাāϝ্āϝ āĻāϰে।
2.
Meiosis
Occurs
in reproductive cells and produces four gametes with half chromosome number.
āĻāĻি āĻāύāύāĻোāώে āĻāĻে āĻāĻŦং āĻāϧা āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻাāϰāĻি āĻ্āϝাāĻŽেāĻ āϤৈāϰি āĻāϰে।
Meiosis
is known as reduction division.
āĻŽাāĻā§োāϏিāϏāĻে āϰিāĻĄাāĻāĻļāύ āĻĄিāĻিāĻļāύ āĻŦāϞা āĻšāϝ়।
Important
Terms
Karyokinesis
– division of the nucleus.
āĻ্āϝাāϰিāĻāĻাāĻāύেāϏিāϏ – āύিāĻāĻ্āϞিāϝ়াāϏেāϰ āĻŦিāĻাāĻāύ।
Cytokinesis
– division of cytoplasm.
āϏাāĻāĻোāĻাāĻāύেāϏিāϏ – āϏাāĻāĻোāĻĒ্āϞাāĻāĻŽেāϰ āĻŦিāĻাāĻāύ।
Diploid
– cells with two sets of chromosomes.
āĻĄিāĻĒ্āϞāϝ়েāĻĄ – āĻĻুāĻ āϏেāĻ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻোāώ।
Haploid
– cells with one set of chromosomes.
āĻš্āϝাāĻĒ্āϞāϝ়েāĻĄ – āĻāĻ āϏেāĻ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻোāώ।
Crossing
over – exchange of genetic material during meiosis.
āĻ্āϰāϏিং āĻāĻাāϰ – āĻŽাāĻā§োāϏিāϏে āĻিāύেāϰ āĻŦিāύিāĻŽāϝ়।
Homologous
chromosomes – a pair of similar chromosomes.
āĻšোāĻŽোāϞোāĻাāϏ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ – āĻāĻāĻ āϧāϰāύেāϰ āĻāĻ āĻোāĻĄ়া āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ।
Genetics
Genetics
is the study of heredity and variation.
āĻেāύেāĻিāĻ্āϏ āĻšāϞ āĻŦংāĻļāĻāϤ āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āĻ āĻĒাāϰ্āĻĨāĻ্āϝ āĻ
āϧ্āϝāϝ়āύ।
Gregor
Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics.
āĻ্āϰেāĻāϰ āĻŽেāύ্āĻĄেāϞāĻে āĻেāύেāĻিāĻ্āϏেāϰ āĻāύāĻ āĻŦāϞা āĻšāϝ়।
Mendel’s
Laws
1.
Law
of Paired Factors – each trait is controlled by two factors.
āĻāĻāĻি āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝেāϰ āĻāύ্āϝ āĻĻুāĻ āϧāϰāύেāϰ āĻŦংāĻļāĻāϤ āĻāĻĒাāĻĻাāύ āĻĨাāĻে।
2.
Law
of Dominance – the dominant trait appears in F₁.
F₁ āĻĒ্āϰāĻāύ্āĻŽে āĻļুāϧু
āĻĒ্āϰāĻাāĻŦāĻļাāϞী āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āĻĒ্āϰāĻাāĻļ āĻĒাāϝ়।
3.
Law
of Segregation – factors separate during gamete formation.
āĻ্āϝাāĻŽেāĻ āϤৈāϰিāϰ āϏāĻŽāϝ় āĻāĻĒাāĻĻাāύāĻুāϞি āĻāϞাāĻĻা āĻšāϝ়ে āϝাāϝ়।
4.
Law
of Independent Assortment – traits pass independently.
āĻŦিāĻিāύ্āύ āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āϏ্āĻŦāϤāύ্āϤ্āϰāĻাāĻŦে āĻāϤ্āϤāϰাāϧিāĻাāϰāϏূāϤ্āϰে āϝাāϝ়।
Genetic
Terms
Linkage
– genes on the same chromosome are inherited together.
āϞিāĻ্āĻেāĻ – āĻāĻāĻ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽে āĻĨাāĻা āĻিāύ āĻāĻāϏাāĻĨে āĻāϤ্āϤāϰাāϧিāĻাāϰāϏূāϤ্āϰে āĻāϏে।
Mutation
– sudden change in a gene.
āĻŽিāĻāĻেāĻļāύ – āĻিāύে āĻāĻāϏ্āĻŽিāĻ āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāϰ্āϤāύ।
Variation
– visible differences in offspring.
āĻ্āϝাāϰিāϝ়েāĻļāύ – āϏāύ্āϤাāύেāϰ āĻŽāϧ্āϝে āĻĻেāĻা āĻĒাāϰ্āĻĨāĻ্āϝ।
Cloning
– producing identical organisms.
āĻ্āϞোāύিং – āĻ
āĻিāύ্āύ āĻীāĻŦ āϤৈāϰি āĻāϰা।
Totipotency
– one plant cell can form a whole plant.
āĻোāĻিāĻĒোāĻেāύ্āϏি – āĻāĻāĻ āĻāĻĻ্āĻিāĻĻ āĻোāώ āĻĒুāϰো āĻাāĻ āϤৈāϰি āĻāϰāϤে āĻĒাāϰে।
Pluripotency
– animal cells can turn into many cell types.
āĻĒ্āϞুāϰিāĻĒোāĻেāύ্āϏি – āĻĒ্āϰাāĻŖীāĻোāώ āĻŦāĻšু āϧāϰāύেāϰ āĻোāώে āϰূāĻĒ āύিāϤে āĻĒাāϰে।
GMO –
organism with altered DNA.
āĻিāĻāĻŽāĻ – āĻĒāϰিāĻŦāϰ্āϤিāϤ āĻĄিāĻāύāĻāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻীāĻŦ।
Sex
Determination in Humans
Males
have XY chromosomes; females have XX.
āĻĒুāϰুāώেāϰ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ XY āĻāĻŦং āύাāϰীāϰ XX।
The
baby’s sex depends on the sperm.
āĻļিāĻļুāϰ āϞিāĻ্āĻ āύিāϰ্āĻāϰ āĻāϰে āĻļুāĻ্āϰাāĻŖুāϰ āĻāĻĒāϰ।
X-sperm
+ X-ovum → Female child
X-āĻļুāĻ্āϰাāĻŖু + X-āĻĄিāĻŽ্āĻŦাāĻŖু → āĻŽেāϝ়ে āĻļিāĻļু
Y-sperm
+ X-ovum → Male child
Y-āĻļুāĻ্āϰাāĻŖু + X-āĻĄিāĻŽ্āĻŦাāĻŖু → āĻেāϞে āĻļিāĻļু
Genetic
Disorders
1.
Klinefelter
Syndrome (XXY/XYY) – males with extra chromosome.
āĻ
āϤিāϰিāĻ্āϤ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽāϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻĒুāϰুāώ;
āϏাāϧাāϰāĻŖāϤ āĻŦāύ্āϧ্āϝāϤ্āĻŦ āĻĻেāĻা āϝাāϝ়।
2.
Turner
Syndrome (XO) – females with one X chromosome.
āĻāĻāĻ X-āϝুāĻ্āϤ āύাāϰী; āĻĄিāĻŽ্āĻŦাāĻļāϝ় āĻ িāĻāĻŽāϤো āĻāĻ িāϤ āĻšāϝ় āύা।
3.
Down
Syndrome – extra chromosome 21.
⧍⧧ āύāĻŽ্āĻŦāϰ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ āĻ
āϤিāϰিāĻ্āϤ;
āĻŽাāύāϏিāĻ āĻ āĻļাāϰীāϰিāĻ āϏāĻŽāϏ্āϝা āĻĻেāĻা āĻĻেāϝ়।
4.
Patau
Syndrome – extra chromosome 13.
ā§§ā§Š āύāĻŽ্āĻŦāϰ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽ āĻ
āϤিāϰিāĻ্āϤ;
āĻ োঁāĻ āĻĢাāĻা āϏāĻš āĻŦāĻšু āϤ্āϰুāĻি।
5.
Sickle
Cell Anaemia – gene change on chromosome 11.
ā§§ā§§ āύāĻŽ্āĻŦāϰ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽেāϰ āĻিāύ-āϤ্āϰুāĻি; āϰāĻ্āϤāĻāĻŖিāĻা āĻ
āϏ্āĻŦাāĻাāĻŦিāĻ āĻāĻৃāϤিāϰ।
6.
Phenylketonuria
– mutation on chromosome 12.
⧧⧍ āύāĻŽ্āĻŦāϰ āĻ্āϰোāĻŽোāĻোāĻŽেāϰ āϤ্āϰুāĻি;
āĻļāϰীāϰে āĻŦিāώাāĻ্āϤ āĻāĻĒাāĻĻাāύ
āĻāĻŽা āĻšāϝ়।
7.
Haemophilia
– sex-linked disorder where blood cannot clot.
āϰāĻ্āϤ āĻāĻŽাāĻ āĻŦাঁāϧে āύা; āϝৌāύ-āϏংāϝুāĻ্āϤ āϰোāĻ।
8.
Colour
Blindness – difficulty identifying red-green colours.
āϞাāϞ-āϏāĻŦুāĻ āϰং āĻŦোāĻা āĻāĻ িāύ; āϝৌāύ-āϏংāϝুāĻ্āϤ āϰোāĻ।
Organic
Evolution
Evolution
is the slow change from simple life forms to complex organisms.
āĻৈāĻŦ āĻŦিāĻŦāϰ্āϤāύ āĻšāϞ āϏāĻšāĻ āĻীāĻŦ āĻĨেāĻে āĻāĻিāϞ āĻীāĻŦেāϰ āϧীāϰে āϧীāϰে āĻāύ্āύāϤি।
Evidence
of Evolution
1.
Homologous
Organs – same structure, different work.
āĻāĻāĻ āĻāĻ āύ, āĻিāύ্āύ āĻাāĻ।
Examples: human arm, bat wing, whale flipper.
āĻāĻĻাāĻšāϰāĻŖ: āĻŽাāύুāώেāϰ āĻšাāϤ, āĻŦাāĻĻুāĻĄ়েāϰ āĻĄাāύা, āϤিāĻŽিāϰ āĻĢ্āϞিāĻĒাāϰ।
2.
Analogous
Organs – different structure, same function.
āĻিāύ্āύ āĻāĻ āύ, āĻāĻāĻ āĻাāĻ।
Examples: bird wing and insect wing.
āĻāĻĻাāĻšāϰāĻŖ: āĻĒাāĻিāϰ āĻĄাāύা āĻ āĻĒোāĻাāĻŽাāĻāĻĄ়েāϰ āĻĄাāύা।
3.
Vestigial
Organs – organs without function.
āĻāϰ্āĻŽāĻšীāύ āĻ
āĻ্āĻ।
Examples: appendix, ear muscles.
āĻāĻĻাāĻšāϰāĻŖ: āĻ
্āϝাāĻĒেāύ্āĻĄিāĻ্āϏ, āĻাāύেāϰ āĻĒেāĻļি।
4.
Fossils
– remains of ancient organisms.
āĻĒ্āϰাāĻীāύ āĻীāĻŦেāϰ āĻ
āĻŦāĻļিāώ্āĻাংāĻļ।
Archaeopteryx
is a fossil showing both reptile and bird features.
āĻāϰ্āĻিāĻāĻĒāĻেāϰিāĻ্āϏ āϏāϰীāϏৃāĻĒ āĻ āĻĒাāĻিāϰ āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āϝুāĻ্āϤ āĻāĻāĻি āϏংāϝোāĻী āĻীāĻŦাāĻļ্āĻŽ।
Theories
of Evolution
Lamarck’s Theory – organs improve with use; acquired traits
inherited.
āĻŦ্āϝāĻŦāĻšাāϰে āĻ
āĻ্āĻ āĻāύ্āύāϤ āĻšāϝ়;
āĻ
āϰ্āĻিāϤ āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āĻāϤ্āϤāϰাāϧিāĻাāϰāϏূāϤ্āϰে āϝাāϝ় (āĻāĻ āϏ্āĻŦীāĻৃāϤ āύāϝ়)।
Darwin’s Theory (Natural Selection)
āĻীāĻŦেāϰা āĻ
āϧিāĻ āϏāύ্āϤাāύ āĻā§āĻĒাāĻĻāύ āĻāϰে → āĻĒ্āϰāϤিāϝোāĻিāϤা āĻšāϝ়।
āĻāĻĒāϝোāĻী āĻীāĻŦāĻ āĻŦেঁāĻে āĻĨাāĻে।
āϞাāĻāĻāύāĻ āĻŦৈāĻļিāώ্āĻ্āϝ āĻāĻŦিāώ্āϝ⧠āĻĒ্āϰāĻāύ্āĻŽে āϝাāϝ়।
āϧীāϰে āϧীāϰে āύāϤুāύ āĻĒ্āϰāĻাāϤি āĻāĻ িāϤ āĻšāϝ়।
Modern Synthetic Theory – genetics + natural selection; most
accepted today.
āĻেāύেāĻিāĻ্āϏ āĻ āύ্āϝাāĻাāϰাāϞ āϏিāϞেāĻāĻļāύেāϰ āϏāĻŽāύ্āĻŦāϝ়ে āĻāĻ িāϤ āĻāϧুāύিāĻ āϤāϤ্āϤ্āĻŦ; āĻŦāϰ্āϤāĻŽাāύে āϏāϰ্āĻŦাāϧিāĻ āϏ্āĻŦীāĻৃāϤ।
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